The Role of Women (Duddy Kravitz) Essay Example

The Role of Women (Duddy Kravitz) Essay 1) What is the role of women in the novel? Make specific references to female characters. What does this tell us about the Kravitz world? In Mordecai Richler’s novel, The Apprenticeship of Duddy Kravitz, women are represented to have a lower class than men. The women who are present in the novel include Yvette Durelle, Ida Kravitz, Minnie Kravitz, Linda Rubin and Sandra Calder. Each of these female characters are seen as helpless individuals unable to bear for themselves and left unsuccessful without men. Through Duddy’s never ending quest to own land to ultimately be successful, Richler depicts women in a negative way. They are seen as instruments to help men succeed and every so often used as traps for others. Therefore the women in this novel do not have lives of their own as they are portrayed solely as part of other men’s lives. Such exists because the lives of the women were not once explored throughout the novel, it was always through the eyes of a man and since the women are not explored, therefore this results in a male dominated novel. Women are portrayed to be items of sexual desires; worthless and unworthy of a man’s second thoughts. As was the case with Max, his wife and Josette. We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Women (Duddy Kravitz) specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Women (Duddy Kravitz) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on The Role of Women (Duddy Kravitz) specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Josette is one of the whores whom Max is pimping for and is described as being a â€Å"handsome whore with splendid black hair and enormous breast. †(22) Such indicates that she is revered only for looks and her sexual abilities. Another such instance is when a women was being described by Max only for her features while they were at the bar â€Å"†¦sitting beside him is the greatest little piece you ever saw. Knockers? You’ve never seen such a pair. I mean just look at that girl†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (20) Furthermore, Josette’s feelings are disregarded and ignored even though she is human and has every right to be treated fairly and humanely. Max grabs her forcefully and practically drags her. â€Å"You’re hurting me †¦Ã¢â‚¬  (24) She is thought to be someone who can only perform sexual tasks and the readers read that she has no place in society outside or other than that. Max’s poor treatment of his whores, Josette included, likely influenced Duddy’s poor opinion of women. The way he regards women and the way he is with them is reminiscent of his father being a pimp and man-handling Josette at the beginning of the novel, as such treatment has likely been occurring since the death Max’s wife and Duddy’s mother Minnie Kravitz, if not starting with his treatment of her. In sense, it could be argued that Max disrespects his deceased wife by resorting to pimping, using Josette as an instrument to pay for the bills and having a successful family. This revels that Max does not possess the feelings a man should have for his wife. There were types of woman seen in the novel which were those who could not be trusted because they were only out for themselves. Such women were not treated well and are to be hated and laughed at for their stupidity. One of such women, Linda is featured very briefly during Duddy’s time at Hotel Lac des Sables, who Irwin Shubert convinced to go out with him. She is described in great detail; with more attention on her appearance and no mention whatsoever of her having a personality or feelings at all. â€Å"Soft, curvy, and nifty enough for one of those fashion magazines†¦Ã¢â‚¬  (78). She uses him and is still thought to be more worthwhile than the caring Yvette, and is thrown around later on. Sandra is the girl Lennie attempts to perform an abortion for, and consequently nearly loses his place at school. Her father is on the board for the university and he can convince the board to allow Lennie to stay. She is only depicted as being weak and whore-ish, being impregnated by her boyfriend, Andy Simpson. Not much is known about her, but she is seen as being emotional, desperate and hysterical. Riva Kaplan is Lennie’s girlfriend and though much is not known about her either she is said, by him to be quite the terrible person. â€Å"She’s not better than a whore† (186). He fights with her and she is not mentioned again, indicating that a woman who fights and stands up for herself against a man is to be left and disposed of, not reasoned with or listened to. Furthermore, Duddy was never fully loved by his family. There is no concrete evidence that shows any of them ever cared for him or wanted to take part in his life. Though Lennie seems to somewhat appreciate Duddy, he is still somewhat distant to him and he focuses on his own studies and life. The first person to truly love him, for who he was, unconditionally, was his â€Å"Girl Friday†, Yvette Durelle. She is treated and shown to be beneath the men she is around, and is to be dominated and ordered around without defiance. Duddy’s girlfriend, Yvette, was the first person, male or female, to ever truly love Duddy for who he was, faults and all. Yvette gave Duddy many chances to be with her, but he consistently turned to his desire for land and money in place of her. â€Å"Three weeks. Duddy, if you start running again, I’ll leave you† (291). The last chance she gave him he ignored, and he preferred to stay alone and unhappy (whether conscience of it or not) with his precious land than the woman who loved him. The only time Duddy seems to show any feelings of affection towards Yvette was shorty after they had relations, just before he was shown the land by her. Her purpose to him then was clear; she would be used for sex and for the acquisition he his precious land. The fact that she stayed with him through his emotional abuse towards her indicated that she was weak and subservient, as all women are to be. His inability to appreciate women can be traced to his opinion of himself, his family, or both simultaneously. Specifically concerning Duddy Kravitz, many women were portrayed as traps, nags and instruments helping him succeed. There was woman in particular who helped Duddy to exponential levels and who ultimately led him to be ‘successful’. Yvette never lived in her own right or more than the foil for Duddy’s ambition, which in the end, consumes everything else in the novel. Therefore Yvette’s portrayal is entirely dependent on Duddy. (Richler never explores her family in Montreal) Yvette is seen as a trap to Duddy, despite wanting to pursue his land, he does not want to commit to Yvette and be trapped by her. She does not want Duddy to fulfill his dreams because she would rather settle down and start a family. Consequently Duddy’s lack of interest in Yvette is shown when â€Å"I feel so good, she said. Do you feel good? He could watch the lake over her shoulder and in his mind’s eye it was not only already his but the children’s camp and the hotel were already going up† (Richler, 100) As a nag, Yvette constantly suggest her opinion to Duddy; as a result this frustrates him and her â€Å"I’ve seen you do lots of dishonest thing, Duddy, but never in my life did I expect you to cheat a boy like Virgil† (216) Duddy’s French Canadian girlfriend, Yvette functioned not as a person in her own right but simply as a moral conscious for Duddy. This shows that Yvette acts as authority figure in Duddy’s life, something he lacks. Yvette also acts as a mother figure in Duddy’s life. Duddy does not show an interest in Yvette; although she harasses him constantly and keeps showing her affection, it irritates Duddy because he is just using her. Yvette is used as an instrument as although she shows genuine love for Duddy, he never seems to have feelings for her. Since Duddy is a minor he employed Yvette as tool in acquiring his land, and manipulates her to his liking. She is an instrument used to get Duddy his land so he can fulfill his dream. Such goes to say that women during the 1950s were to be disregarded and called upon only for tasks, relations and served only as indicators of a man’s wealth and worth by her attractiveness.

On My Personal Experience with Other Cultures Encountered by My essays

On My Personal Experience with Other Cultures Encountered by My essays On My Personal Experience with Other Cultures Encountered by My ... Every lucky man has all five senses, perhaps he or she has also the power of predicting the future by means of of the so called "sixth sense", or intuition. We use them altogether all the time, and so one can hardly tell a story in which just one particular sense is engaged. I have spent most of my life here in Slovakia and I only communicate with other worlds by means of the Internet, by reading or by watching TV. Or I communicate with those worlds which come to my world. As far as my vision in interaction with other cultures is concerned, the most intense memory is a 16th century painting by van Brueghel Jr. called The Triumph of Death. It shows Death and all that it stands for coming in overwhelming quantity, torturing and killing masses of people in insane laughter. I saw this picture when I was 7 for the first time and since then I have been returning to it, wondering what event could have led the author to create this dreadful masterpiece. I have seen many similar and even much better artistic works since I saw The Triumph of Death for the first time, but with the help of this particular work I realized that Art is all about making an image of and perceiving different worlds inhabited by different people. Music. This is the first thing that comes to my mind when hearing and other cultures are mentioned. I remember one summer night, when there were about 20 people sitting around a fire and everyone held an instrument. Most of those were people I did not know, but at that moment I felt strong mutual unity powered by tribal beats of bongos of all sizes. It was a ritual of freeing our minds to other dimensions and the music was the gate. At that time, banging a bongo, playing a didgeridoo or another "non-standard" instrument was a matter of fashion, of course, mainly within the young, now it is fading away. I do not know and I do not ...

A View of Alex Garland’s Film, Ex Machina

A View of Alex Garland’s Film, Ex Machina In the bathroom scene in Ex Machina (2015), Caleb (Domhnall Gleeson) performs a test on himself, to see if he is an android like Ava, and, as he has just discovered, Kyoko. While one would think this scene should resolve the question, it only muddies the water. As Caleb examines himself in the mirror, green and blue digital effects flash on his face. Is this a function of the mirror, or a HUD of Caleb’s potentially robotic eyes? Or perhaps it is a non-diegetic element solely to heighten the viewer’s curiosity. Sound design plays an integral role in this scene as well. As he pulls at his teeth, small click sounds emanate from his mouth, which could be plastic pieces snapping, or just the sound of his fingers clicking on his teeth. The score features electronic instruments and synthesizers playing non-lyrical rising tones. This both reflects a mechanical mood, hinting that Caleb may be an android, and instills a sense of rising tension with the viewer, anxiously anticipat ing a reveal. The cinematography is vital to this scene’s function. The camera work toys with the viewer, first with quick, non-continuous cuts, followed by long, suspenseful shots, keeping the audience disoriented and unable to predict the pace of the scene. As the scene progresses, the lighting shifts to emphasize his bone structure, tantalizing the audience to see what is below his skin. One particular shot is composed so that Caleb’s arm and body form a triangle with his face obscured behind it. This separates the audience from Caleb, making the viewer wonder if they can trust and relate to him anymore. Is this a moment of revelation for him as he looks at his cut open arm? The framing of the shot, with his eye at the top of the triangle formed by his arm and body, is ever so slightly reminiscent of the Illuminati symbol, which could allude to the conspiracy facing Caleb. What is most compelling in this scene is Gleeson’s performance. What kind of human can cut deep into their own arm without so much as flinching or uttering a sound of pain? Though he begins the scene frantic and curious, he ends the scene staring at his reflection, unblinking in a very Terminator-like fashion. He ends the scene by punching the mirror, creating a shatter which very poetically mirrors the shatter on the glass between him and Ava. Though this ultimately proves to be a red herring, this scene all but convinces the viewer that Caleb is likewise a robot.

The General Principles of Financial Management Essay

The General Principles of Financial Management - Essay Example Profit maximization is the main aim for which the whole organization put in efforts too but it not the only goal of the firm as discussed above. The change in the value of firm can be measured by the change in Earnings/Share which shows the per share return to investors. (Gitman, 2006) Managers and their co-workers can not only depend on the main aim of an organization which is to maximize its profits. It is because of the timing of the cash received is important as the t soon as it is received is better because of the concept of time value of money. Owners receive cash in form of dividend and hence higher EPS doesn’t necessarily mean that there will be an increase in dividends as managers may increase their own bonuses instead. Maximizing profit might result in more risky investments made and hence increasing the beta of the firm so profit maximization is not the only main goal of firm. (Gitman, 2006) Question#2: Total risk of any firm can be bifurcated into two categories: a ) Diversifiable risk b) Non-diversifiable risk The diversifiable risk is one that can be diversified by taking some crude actions and making sure that firm doesn’t lose anything as a whole. This is a kind of risk that is just specific to a firm such as fire at a warehouse. This type of risk can be diversified if special precautionary measures are taken and hence it is in control of the firm to reduce such kind of risk. The chances of fire at workplace can be reduced by placing special notifications at flammable spots in the factory and other working areas. Therefore, this kind of risk is usually referred to as firm-specific-risk or nonsystematic risk. The non-diversifiable risk is the one that is out of firms own control and affects all firms in the industry with the same effect on each of them. This kind of risk is not avoidable and hence no contingency planning can help any firm in this case. The example of this kind of risk is when government increases the tax rate of the firms, they all have to bear it and none can take any step to avoid such an alteration in law. Therefore these kinds of risks are known as market risk or unsystematic risk as well. Therefore it is said that if you can’t do anything about something you just bear with it and hence nonsystematic risk is usually considered to be irrelevant while making long-term decisions. (Niehaus, 1999) Question#3: Weighted marginal cost of capital is the cost of borrowing/financing next extra dollar. The graph that portrays the cost of capital of a firm can be used to identify WMCC. The graph shows the discount rate that is applicable at each point or dollar of financing that is required. Marginal cost of capital is the rate that the firm will pay in return to its financings achieved through a particular source. WMCC is weighted average cost of all the financings done by the firm through several sources like debt, preferred stock, common stock, debentures, loans etc. each financing activity ha s different cost attached to it like common stock bear high cost then debentures or bonds because the holders of common stock have the right to vote for the selection of board of directors and also bear a risk of not attaining anything in terms of dividends if the business make loss in any year. Bonds on the other hand have a fixed rate of interest that is to be paid to the bondholders at the end of every year regardless of the fact that business made any profit or not.

Central Bank of GCC Gulf Cooperation Council Assignment

Central Bank of GCC Gulf Cooperation Council - Assignment Example that the framing of effective monetary as well as fiscal policies will be one of the prime aspects to be taken into concern while designing the structure of GCC Central Bank. From the conduct of various studies, it can be found that the objectives and the functions that hold by GCC Central Bank will significantly lead the economies of the respective Gulf nations to attain immense growth. The Central Banks belonging to varied nations have been playing a decisive part in the developmental process of economies for numerous years. These sorts of financial intermediaries aid in progressing the economies of respective nations in terms of recognizing adequate monetary flow. It is worth mentioning that Central Banks not only look upon stabilizing the monetary policies, but also focuses on maintaining internal monitory stability by controlling the inflationary pressure. This inflationary pressure is mainly created owing to the persistence of inelasticity in adequate monetary transactions (Bank for International Settlement, 2009). The Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) is principally viewed to be a political and economic association, which mainly regulates the financial policies of six Gulf countries of Middle East. From a historical perspective, it will be vital to mention that GCC was mainly established in the year 1981in Riyadh, Saudia Arabia. It operates in six Gulf countries namely Saudia Arabia, Kuwait, United Arab Erminates, Qatar, Bahrain and Oman. Specially mentioning, the monetary policies and the economic growth of these Gulf countries are not regulated by the Central Bank (Sturm et al., 2008). With this concern, the assignment intends to conduct a comprehensive analysis of GCC Central Bank with considering varied significant aspects. These aspects comprise recommending the structure of GCC Central Bank, identifying similarities or differences with that of the European Central Bank and assessing the imperative functions as well as objectives of the same. While

Gay marriage should be legalized and accepted Essay Example for Free

Gay marriage should be legalized and accepted Essay Gay marriage (also known as same-sex marriage) generally refer to the marriage between two people with same sex can be either both male or both female. Imagine this, you and your beloved person walking on the street, everyone look at you in a strange way and mumble about you. How will you feel? That is how homosexual people feel these days. Remember this, they are just human beings like us but have different sexual orientation and that is the one and only difference. They can feel pain, happiness, sadness and lost just like how we feel, both physically and psychologically. It is one of our liberties to pursue happiness, which homosexual people are not able to chase, because they cannot marry the person they love. Who give you the right to take away others’ happiness? The happiness which did not and will not harm you. Are you racist? Are you sexist? Reasonable people will know that discriminate against anyone for any reason is rude and uneducated. And denying same-sex marriage sends the message of it is acceptable to discriminate against them. Some people may say that the institution of marriage has traditionally been defined as between a man and a woman, and allowing gay marriage will weaken the institution of marriage. This is absolutely nonsense. To not to change the institution is like to tell the court to not to change the law even when the law does not fit the modern world anymore. Nowadays, everything is changing as time passing by, so why not the institution of marriage. The legalization of gay marriage will also make it easier for same-sex couple to adopt, and provide stable home for children who otherwise be left in orphanage which hardly makes kids feel like home. Even gay marriage will lead to children being raised in same-sex household that lots of people may refer as not an optimum environment because children need both mother and father. However, according to a research by University of Melbourne lead by Doctor Simon Crouch which surveyed 315 same-sex parents and 500 children. The research shows that children who were raised in same-sex parents scored an average of 6% higher then general population on both health and family cohesion. Clearly the evidence shows that the children who grown up in same-sex couple family won’t grow unhealthily, in fact sometimes it is even better for kids to gain more resilience, because all the kids need is no more than two loving parents. So how many lives should be ruined, how many happiness should be  taken away before we take actions?

Fenstads Mother :: essays papers

Fenstads Mother In Fenstad’s Mother, by Charles Baxter, character is a very essential element to the story. The main character, Harry Fenstad, is a complicated person, but it is his mother, Mrs. Clara Fenstad, who I feel is a more important and complex person. In this brief paper, I will explain why it is my opinion that both of these characters play a crucial role in the story by complementing and developing each other’s character. Fenstad career is a brochure writer, but he also teaches an extension English-composition class at the downtown campus of the state university. He attends church regularly, and his passion is ice skating. I know that these may seem like simple ways to describe a character I have referred to as complicated, but there is so much more that lies beneath these plain descriptions. Fenstad says that he likes to teach because â€Å"he liked teaching strangers and because he enjoyed the sense of hope that classrooms held for him† (page 117). Harry seems to be a very distant person in that he likes to be around people who do not really know him. He would much rather be an observer than a very active participant. When he goes ice skating in the beginning of the story, there are a lot of people who are skating, but he can blend right in. He hs a few friends, but they are very similar to Fenstad. They like the same things and have the same attitudes about life. Fenstad does not want to seem to deviate from his own normal way of life. Fenstad’s mother, Clara, is a character quite opposite from her son. She is older and does not get out of her house much. She used to be very active in politics and loves to be around people. She has a kindness and generosity that instantly attracts other people. When she begins to visit Fenstad’s logic class, the students seem to be more interested in what she has to say than in what Fenstad is trying to teach. Mrs. Fenstad is aware and understands her own magnetism and tries not to take too much attention away from her son. The two characters help each other develop throughout the story. Fenstad is a person who is very reluctant to change, whereas his mother is an individual whose mind is always open to new possibilities. It did not surprise me that Mrs.

Frederick Douglass Rhetoric Analysis

Whenever injustice exists in society, it becomes the responsibility of others to step forward in defense of the oppressed. If this action does not occur, then the injustice will remain and innocent people will suffer. In order to preserve equality, sometimes people must take a risk in order to reveal the truth and uphold justice. Individuals throughout history, such as the founding fathers, Gandhi, and Martin Luther King, Jr. , have faced this peril in the pursuit of freedom.In 1845, Frederick Douglass published Narrative of the Life of Frederick Douglass, an American Slave, in order to do just that- to establish the truth behind slavery and advocate for freedom. In his narrative, Douglass uses diction, structure, imagery, and other stylistic elements to persuade people of the evils that slavery inflicts on both sides of society. In order to reveal the truth behind slavery, Douglass demonstrates his point through his use of diction and structure. Through his diction, Douglass uses wo rds to illustrate the barbarity and inhumanity of slavery.For instance, Douglass describes slaveholders as â€Å"human flesh-mongers† and their actions as â€Å"fiendish barbarity† (Douglass, 21, 27). By using words such as these, Douglass shows his contempt for those responsible and informs the reader of the cruelty of slavery. He compares the slaveholders to barbarians, revealing them as the height of cruelty and wickedness. In addition, after watching the white men heartlessly rank slaves with swine and thoughtlessly divide families, he â€Å"saw more clearly than ever the brutalizing effects of slavery upon both the slave and the slaveholder† (Douglass, 58).Douglass uses the word brutalizing to show how the power of owning another person turned the white brutal and inhuman. That they could commit these malicious acts on fellow human beings becomes incomprehensible, and he successfully communicates the terrible effects of slavery. In addition to his diction, Douglass uses structure to show how the barbarity of enslavement first turned him into a slave, and how that same inhumanity set him free. After about nine chapters detailing his slave life, he says, â€Å"You have seen how a man was made a slave; you shall see how a slave was made a man. (Douglass, 75) He then goes on to describe the turning point for him that sparked his quest for freedom. By structuring his narrative this way, he reveals both sides- how slavery broke him â€Å"in body, soul, and spirit† (Douglass, 73) and how it eventually â€Å"rekindled the few expiring embers of freedom† within him (Douglass, 80). In doing so, he gives the reader an insight into how he became himself, and reinforces the evils of slavery in the way it shapes a man’s life. Douglass’ use of diction and structure effectively persuades the reader of the barbarity and inhumanity that comes as a result of slavery.To continue his persuasion, Douglass uses selection of deta il and different tones to make his view known. When describing some aspects of slavery, Douglass’ use of detail opens society’s eyes to injustice. In one case, when describing the whipping of his Aunt Hester, he includes details that encompass sight- â€Å"the warm, red blood†¦ came dripping to the floor,† sound- â€Å"amid heart-rending shrieks,† and emotion- â€Å"I was so horror-stricken†¦ I hid myself in a closet† (Douglass, 24).By including facts covering many senses, he provides the reader a chance to piece together the scene, giving them perspective. If society has all the details, it becomes easier for them to pass an accurate judgment of slavery. His detail, or lack thereof, also contributes to his use of tone- in particular, one of coolness and detachment. When describing incidents involving himself, he seems as if relating the story of another- â€Å"scarce a week passed without his whipping me. I was seldom free from a sore b ack† (Douglass, 70).While he neither over or under exaggerates the situation, he seldom tells of his own emotions and disgust regarding his punishments, and he shows his contempt without appearing exceedingly emotional. By keeping a cooler tone, Douglass avoids writing hot with emotion and reestablishes his credibility. Douglass also uses a tone of despair to persuade of injustice. In one passage, he pours out his heart, â€Å"O God, save me! God deliver me! †¦ Why am I a slave? †(Douglass, 74). Through his touching supplication the reader better understands him.His despairing tone displays how slavery truly broke him down and pushed him into misery. Douglass’ use of detail and tone sincerely convinces one of slavery’s evils. In addition to stylistic elements used thus far, Douglass also uses both imagery and syntax to portray the horrors of slavery. To begin with, he uses imagery by personifying slavery: â€Å"there stood slavery, a stern reality, g laring frightfully upon us, -its robes already crimsoned with the blood of millions, and even now feasting itself greedily upon our own flesh. (Douglass, 90) By depicting slavery this way, he gives it power and emphasis, causing slaves to appear powerless beneath slavery’s influence. The mental representation he renders reveals once more the involuntary, villainous enslavement and that the effects of slavery are evil and need to cease. Along with personification, Douglass uses a metaphor to illustrate the terrible effects of slavery on his mistress- â€Å"Slavery proved as injurious to her as it did to me†¦Under its influence, the tender heart became stone, and the lamblike disposition gave way to one of tiger-like fierceness† (Douglass, 51).While her heart did not truly become stone, this illustration helps to reveal how the responsibility of owning another human being corrupted her. By using a metaphor, the comparison between her temperament before and after own ing a slave becomes a harsher, more stark reality of slavery’s evil influence. Along with imagery, Douglass’ use of syntax provides description and effectively helps to portray slavery’s harms.After escaping to the north, Douglass describes the thoughts running through his mind: â€Å"let him place himself in my situation- without home or friends- without money or credit- wanting shelter, and no one to give it- wanting bread, and no money to buy it,†¦ – perfectly helpless both as to the means of defense and means of escape, †¦ – I say, let him be placed in this most trying situation, – the situation in which I was placed,- then, and not till then, will he fully appreciate the hardships of, and know how to sympathize with, the toil-worn and whip-scarred fugitive slave† (Douglass, 110).The choppy flow of this sentence, filled with breaks in thought, makes him seem breathless and reflects his panic as a runaway slave. This show s that slavery, which has instilled deep fear into the hearts of slaves, makes adjustment in a free world difficult for fugitives. To convince society of the harm that slavery wreaks on both the slave and slaveholder, Frederick Douglass uses many literary elements in his narrative to convey his message.Overcoming many difficulties and prejudice against him, Douglass published his narrative, despite numerous risks, to persuade society of slavery’s evils. Engaged in pleading the importance of freedom, his narrative, read across the world, stands as a witness to the  ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬Ã‚ ¬ struggles required to pursue freedom. All through history, courageous individuals have stood up in the face of adversity to protect the rights of others. Today, where freedoms are threatened across the world, people can still make a difference, like Douglass’ narrative, and unify people in a worthy cause to defend liberty.

The Human Genome Project

The Human Genome Project (HGP) is a project undertaken with a goal to understand the genetic make-up of the human species by determining the DNA sequence of the human genome and the genome of a few model organisms. The project began in 1990 and, by some definitions, it was completed in 2003. It was one of the biggest investigational projects in the history of science. The mapping of the human genes was an important step in the development of medicines and other aspects of health care.Most of the genome DNA sequencing for the Human Genome Project was done by researchers at universities and research centers in the the United States and Great Britain, with other genome DNA sequencing done independently by the private company Celera Genomics. The HGP was originally aimed at the more than three billion nucleotides contained in a haploid reference human genome. Recently several groups have announced efforts to extend this to diploid human genomes including the International HapMap Project, Applied Biosystems, Perlegen, Illumina, JCVI, Personal Genome Project, and Roche-454.The â€Å"genome† of any given individual (except for identical twins and cloned animals) is unique; mapping â€Å"the human genome† involves sequencing multiple variations of each gene. The project did not study all of the DNA found in human cells; some heterochromatic areas (about 8% of the total) remain un-sequenced. International HGP Initiation of the Project was the culmination of several years of work supported by the Department of Energy, in particular workshops in 1984 [1] and 1986 and a subsequent initiative the Department of Energy. 2] This 1986 report stated boldly, â€Å"The ultimate goal of this initiative is to understand the human genome† and â€Å"Knowledge of the human genome is as necessary to the continuing progress of medicine and other health sciences as knowledge of human anatomy has been for the present state of medicine. † Candidate technologies w ere already being considered for the proposed undertaking at least as early as 1985. [3] James D. Watson was Head of the National Center for Human Genome Research at the National Institutes of Health (NIH) in the United States starting from 1988.Largely due to his disagreement with his boss, Bernadine Healy, over the issue of patenting genes, he was forced to resign in 1992. He was replaced by Francis Collins in April 1993, and the name of the Center was changed to the National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI) in 1997. The $3-billion project was formally founded in 1990 by the United States Department of Energy and the U. S. National Institutes of Health, and was expected to take 15 years. In addition to the United States, the international consortium comprised geneticists in China, France, Germany, Japan, and the United Kingdom.Due to widespread international cooperation and advances in the field of genomics (especially in sequence analysis), as well as major advances in com puting technology, a ‘rough draft' of the genome was finished in 2000 (announced jointly by then US president Bill Clinton and British Prime Minister Tony Blair on June 26, 2000). [4] Ongoing sequencing led to the announcement of the essentially complete genome in April 2003, 2 years earlier than planned. [5] In May 2006, another milestone was passed on the way to completion of the project, when the sequence of the last chromosome was published in the journal Nature. 6] There are multiple definitions of the â€Å"complete sequence of the human genome†. According to some of these definitions, the genome has already been completely sequenced, and according to other definitions, the genome has yet to be completely sequenced. There have been multiple popular press articles reporting that the genome was â€Å"complete. † The genome has been completely sequenced using the definition employed by the International Human Genome Project. A graphical history of the human ge nome project shows that most of the human genome was complete by the end of 2003.However, there are a number of regions of the human genome that can be considered unfinished. First, the central regions of each chromosome, known as centromeres, are highly repetitive DNA sequences that are difficult to sequence using current technology. The centromeres are millions (possibly tens of millions) of base pairs long, and for the most part these are entirely un-sequenced. Second, the ends of the chromosomes, called telomeres, are also highly repetitive, and for most of the 46 chromosome ends these too are incomplete.We do not know precisely how much sequence remains before we reach the telomeres of each chromosome, but as with the centromeres, current technology does not make it easy to get there. Third, there are several loci in each individual's genome that contain members of multigene families that are difficult to disentangle with shotgun sequencing methodologies – these multigen e families often encode proteins important for immune functions. It is likely that the centromeres and telomeres will remain un-sequenced until new technology is developed that facilitates their sequencing.Other than these regions, there remain a few dozen gaps scattered around the genome, some of them rather large, but there is hope that all these will be closed in the next couple of years. In summary: our best estimates of total genome size indicate that about 92% of the genome has been completed . Most of the remaining DNA is highly repetitive and unlikely to contain genes, but we cannot truly know until we sequence all of it. Understanding the functions of all the genes and their regulation is far from complete.The roles of junk DNA, the evolution of the genome, the differences between individuals, and many other questions are still the subject of intense study by laboratories all over the world. Goals The goals of the original HGP were not only to determine more than 3 billion base pairs in the human genome with a minimal error rate, but also to identify all the genes in this vast amount of data. This part of the project is still ongoing, although a preliminary count indicates about 30,000 genes in the human genome, which is fewer than predicted by many scientists.Another goal of the HGP was to develop faster, more efficient methods for DNA sequencing and sequence analysis and the transfer of these technologies to industry. The sequence of the human DNA is stored in databases available to anyone on the Internet. The U. S. National Center for Biotechnology Information (and sister organizations in Europe and Japan) house the gene sequence in a database known as Genbank, along with sequences of known and hypothetical genes and proteins.Other organizations such as the University of California, Santa Cruz[1], and Ensembl[2] present additional data and annotation and powerful tools for visualizing and searching it. Computer programs have been developed to analy ze the data, because the data themselves are difficult to interpret without such programs. The process of identifying the boundaries between genes and other features in raw DNA sequence is called genome annotation and is the domain of bioinformatics.While expert biologists make the best annotators, their work proceeds slowly, and computer programs are increasingly used to meet the high-throughput demands of genome sequencing projects. The best current technologies for annotation make use of statistical models that take advantage of parallels between DNA sequences and human language, using concepts from computer science such as formal grammars. Another, often overlooked, goal of the HGP is the study of its ethical, legal, and social implications.It is important to research these issues and find the most appropriate solutions before they become large dilemmas whose effect will manifest in the form of major political concerns. All humans have unique gene sequences; therefore the data p ublished by the HGP does not represent the exact sequence of each and every individual's genome. It is the combined genome of a small number of anonymous donors. The HGP genome is a scaffold for future work in identifying differences among individuals. Most of the current effort in identifying differences among individuals involves single nucleotide polymorphisms and the HapMap.How it was accomplished Funding came from the US government through the National Institutes of Health in the United States, and the UK charity, the Wellcome Trust, who funded the Sanger Institute (then the Sanger Centre) in Great Britain, as well as numerous other groups from around the world. The genome was broken into smaller pieces; approximately 150,000 base pairs in length. These pieces are called â€Å"bacterial artificial chromosomes†, or BACs, because they can be inserted into bacteria where they are copied by the bacterial DNA replication machinery.Each of these pieces was then sequenced separ ately as a small â€Å"shotgun† project and then assembled. The larger, 150,000 base pairs go together to create chromosomes. This is known as the â€Å"hierarchical shotgun† approach, because the genome is first broken into relatively large chunks, which are then mapped to chromosomes before being selected for sequencing. Celera Genomics HGP In 1998, a similar, privately funded quest was launched by the American researcher Craig Venter and his firm Celera Genomics.The $300 million Celera effort was intended to proceed at a faster pace and at a fraction of the cost of the roughly $3 billion publicly funded project. Celera used a riskier technique called whole genome shotgun sequencing, which had been used to sequence bacterial genomes of up to six million base pairs in length, but not for anything nearly as large as the three thousand million base pair human genome. Celera initially announced that it would seek patent protection on â€Å"only 200-300† genes, but later amended this to seeking â€Å"intellectual property protection† on â€Å"fully-characterized important structures† amounting to 100-300 targets.The firm eventually filed preliminary (â€Å"place-holder†) patent applications on 6,500 whole or partial genes. Celera also promised to publish their findings in accordance with the terms of the 1996 â€Å"Bermuda Statement,† by releasing new data quarterly (the HGP released its new data daily), although, unlike the publicly funded project, they would not permit free redistribution or commercial use of the data. In March 2000, President Clinton announced that the genome sequence could not be patented, and should be made freely available to all researchers.The statement sent Celera's stock plummeting and dragged down the biotechnology-heavy Nasdaq. The biotechnology sector lost about $50 billion in market capitalization in two days. Although the working draft was announced in June 2000, it was not until Feb ruary 2001 that Celera and the HGP scientists published details of their drafts. Special issues of Nature (which published the publicly funded project's scientific paper)[7] and Science (which published Celera's paper[8]) described the methods used to produce the draft sequence and offered analysis of the sequence.These drafts covered about 83% of the genome (90% of the euchromatic regions with 150,000 gaps and the order and orientation of many segments not yet established). In February 2001, at the time of the joint publications, press releases announced that the project had been completed by both groups. Improved drafts were announced in 2003 and 2005, filling in to ~92% of the sequence currently. The competition proved to be very good for the project, spurring the public groups to modify their strategy in order to accelerate progress. The rivals initially agreed to pool their data, but the agreement ell apart when Celera refused to deposit its data in the unrestricted public data base GenBank. Celera had incorporated the public data into their genome, but forbade the public effort to use Celera data. HGP is the most well known of many international genome projects aimed at sequencing the DNA of a specific organism. While the human DNA sequence offers the most tangible benefits, important developments in biology and medicine are predicted as a result of the sequencing of model organisms, including mice, fruit flies, zebrafish, yeast, nematodes, plants, and many microbial organisms and parasites.In 2004, researchers from the International Human Genome Sequencing Consortium (IHGSC) of the HGP announced a new estimate of 20,000 to 25,000 genes in the human genome. [9] Previously 30,000 to 40,000 had been predicted, while estimates at the start of the project reached up to as high as 2,000,000. The number continues to fluctuate and it is now expected that it will take many years to agree on a precise value for the number of genes in the human genome. History In 1 976, the genome of the virus Bacteriophage MS2 was the first complete genome to be determined, by Walter Fiers and his team at the University of Ghent (Ghent, Belgium). 10] The idea for the shotgun technique came from the use of an algorithm that combined sequence information from many small fragments of DNA to reconstruct a genome. This technique was pioneered by Frederick Sanger to sequence the genome of the Phage ? -X174, a tiny virus called a bacteriophage that was the first fully sequenced genome (DNA-sequence) in 1977. [11] The technique was called shotgun sequencing because the genome was broken into millions of pieces as if it had been blasted with a shotgun.In order to scale up the method, both the sequencing and genome assembly had to be automated, as they were in the 1980s. Those techniques were shown applicable to sequencing of the first free-living bacterial genome (1. 8 million base pairs) of Haemophilus influenzae in 1995 [12] and the first animal genome (~100 Mbp) [1 3] It involved the use of automated sequencers, longer individual sequences using approximately 500 base pairs at that time. Paired sequences separated by a fixed distance of around 2000 base pairs which were critical elements enabling the development f the first genome assembly programs for reconstruction of large regions of genomes (aka ‘contigs'). Three years later, in 1998, the announcement by the newly-formed Celera Genomics that it would scale up the shotgun sequencing method to the human genome was greeted with skepticism in some circles. The shotgun technique breaks the DNA into fragments of various sizes, ranging from 2,000 to 300,000 base pairs in length, forming what is called a DNA â€Å"library†. Using an automated DNA sequencer the DNA is read in 800bp lengths from both ends of each fragment.Using a complex genome assembly algorithm and a supercomputer, the pieces are combined and the genome can be reconstructed from the millions of short, 800 base pair fr agments. The success of both the public and privately funded effort hinged upon a new, more highly automated capillary DNA sequencing machine, called the Applied Biosystems 3700, that ran the DNA sequences through an extremely fine capillary tube rather than a flat gel. Even more critical was the development of a new, larger-scale genome assembly program, which could handle the 30-50 million sequences that would be required to sequence the entire human genome with this method.At the time, such a program did not exist. One of the first major projects at Celera Genomics was the development of this assembler, which was written in parallel with the construction of a large, highly automated genome sequencing factory. The first version of this assembler was demonstrated in 2000, when the Celera team joined forces with Professor Gerald Rubin to sequence the fruit fly Drosophila melanogaster using the whole-genome shotgun method[14]. At 130 million base pairs, it was at least 10 times large r than any genome previously shotgun assembled.One year later, the Celera team published their assembly of the three billion base pair human genome. How it was accomplished The IHGSC used pair-end sequencing plus whole-genome shotgun mapping of large (~100 Kbp) plasmid clones and shotgun sequencing of smaller plasmid sub-clones plus a variety of other mapping data to orient and check the assembly of each human chromosome[7]. The Celera group tried â€Å"whole-genome shotgun† sequencing without using the additional mapping scaffolding[8], but by including shredded public data raised questions [15].Whose genome was sequenced? In the IHGSC international public-sector Human Genome Project (HGP), researchers collected blood (female) or sperm (male) samples from a large number of donors. Only a few of many collected samples were processed as DNA resources. Thus the donor identities were protected so neither donors nor scientists could know whose DNA was sequenced. DNA clones from m any different libraries were used in the overall project, with most of those libraries being created by Dr.Pieter J. de Jong. It has been informally reported, and is well known in the genomics community, that much of the DNA for the public HGP came from a single anonymous male donor from Buffalo, New York (code name RP11). [16] HGP scientists used white blood cells from the blood of 2 male and 2 female donors (randomly selected from 20 of each) — each donor yielding a separate DNA library. One of these libraries (RP11) was used considerably more than others, due to quality considerations.One minor technical issue is that male samples contain only half as much DNA from the X and Y chromosomes as from the other 22 chromosomes (the autosomes); this happens because each male cell contains only one X and one Y chromosome, not two like other chromosomes (autosomes). (This is true for nearly all male cells not just sperm cells). Although the main sequencing phase of the HGP has been completed, studies of DNA variation continue in the International HapMap Project, whose goal is to identify patterns of single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) groups (called haplotypes, or â€Å"haps†).The DNA samples for the HapMap came from a total of 270 individuals: Yoruba people in Ibadan, Nigeria; Japanese people in Tokyo; Han Chinese in Beijing; and the French Centre d’Etude du Polymorphisms Humain (CEPH) resource, which consisted of residents of the United States having ancestry from Western and Northern Europe. In the Celera Genomics private-sector project, DNA from five different individuals were used for sequencing. The lead scientist of Celera Genomics at that time, Craig Venter, later acknowledged (in a public letter to the journal Science) that his DNA was one of those in the pool[17].On September 4th, 2007, a team led by Craig Venter, published his complete DNA sequence[18], unveiling the six-billion-letter genome of a single individual for the first time . Benefits The work on interpretation of genome data is still in its initial stages. It is anticipated that detailed knowledge of the human genome will provide new avenues for advances in medicine and biotechnology. Clear practical results of the project emerged even before the work was finished.For example, a number of companies, such as Myriad Genetics started offering easy ways to administer genetic tests that can show predisposition to a variety of illnesses, including breast cancer, disorders of hemostasis, cystic fibrosis, liver diseases and many others. Also, the etiologies for cancers, Alzheimer's disease and other areas of clinical interest are considered likely to benefit from genome information and possibly may lead in the long term to significant advances in their management. There are also many tangible benefits for biological scientists.For example, a researcher investigating a certain form of cancer may have narrowed down his/her search to a particular gene. By visiti ng the human genome database on the worldwide web, this researcher can examine what other scientists have written about this gene, including (potentially) the three-dimensional structure of its product, its function(s), its evolutionary relationships to other human genes, or to genes in mice or yeast or fruit flies, possible detrimental mutations, interactions with other genes, body tissues in which this gene is activated, diseases associated with this gene or other datatypes.Further, deeper understanding of the disease processes at the level of molecular biology may determine new therapeutic procedures. Given the established importance of DNA in molecular biology and its central role in determining the fundamental operation of cellular processes, it is likely that expanded knowledge in this area will facilitate medical advances in numerous areas of clinical interest that may not have been possible without them. The analysis of similarities between DNA sequences from different organ isms is also opening new avenues in the study of the theory of evolution.In many cases, evolutionary questions can now be framed in terms of molecular biology; indeed, many major evolutionary milestones (the emergence of the ribosome and organelles, the development of embryos with body plans, the vertebrate immune system) can be related to the molecular level. Many questions about the similarities and differences between humans and our closest relatives (the primates, and indeed the other mammals) are expected to be illuminated by the data from this project.The Human Genome Diversity Project, spinoff research aimed at mapping the DNA that varies between human ethnic groups, which was rumored to have been halted, actually did continue and to date has yielded new conclusions. In the future, HGDP could possibly expose new data in disease surveillance, human development and anthropology. HGDP could unlock secrets behind and create new strategies for managing the vulnerability of ethnic groups to certain diseases (see race in biomedicine). It could also show how human populations have adapted to these vulnerabilities. The Human Genome Project When populations start to die there are only so many to choose from for genes. A founder effect will then be created (Welsch 73). The Human Genome Project set out to identify all the genetic material in humans (Welsch 265). Another type of variation is different from genes it is physiological. Our blood type is a protein on our red blood cells and delivers oxygen and immune responses ( Welsch 267). We are only able to give blood to those who have our same blood type unless we have the blood type that is the universal donor. We have a friend who has suffered miscarriages, the most recent was 26 weeks along. Her body keeps rejecting the baby and they are not sure what the cause is. They are sure that it is not the RH factor. The white blood cells also have their own set of proteins, the human leukocyte antigen system (HLA). This system protects our bodies from foreign objects or infectious agents (Welsch 268). Even within our families we are varied because we will not all have the same combination of the system. We all react to infections and diseases differently. My husband is highly allergic to artificial smells. His system seems to be in overdrive. When he was in the military his bunk mate sprayed scented aerosol deodorant and his throat closed up. He then realized he could not handle anything artificial. My friend's cousin had a double lung transplant last year. Several months after her transplant she got an infection and her body rejected her new lungs and she passed away. I think her rejection to the new lungs was because of the differences in the HLA system of her body and the donor's. Our bodies also adapt and look different from others in our skin tone and our body types. These traits are not as significant in our bodily functions but are varied nonetheless. W all can have different hair color, skin color, and shape and sizes. Our skin does not really have color, it has a pigment called melanin ( Welsch 271). Depending on where the person lived they may have more melanin production and have darker skin. Some can also be tall and skin or short and chubby. We measure this through the anthropometry. It helps determine the variations we see. We put these measurements in the cormic index, which is sitting height to standing height ( Welsch 273). The intemembral index is the ratio of arm length to leg length (Welsch 273). Body fat is determined by the BMI or body mass index. A person can be too skinny or too fat and have a BMI that is not healthy. Another variation is race. This our society's system for classifying people based on how they look. These differences are believed to reflect the root of genetic and biological differences. We also adapt to the environments we encounter. We can either allow our environment to change us or we can change the environment. To survive we have to figure out what needs to change and react accordingly. We have to have a certain plasticity. We all change during our lifetime and it comes somewhat from our surroundings. We can perform niche construction and make our environment suitable to our living conditions. On the farm my in laws own they do several things to insure their success. They have to give the cows shots to make sure they are healthy enough for reproduction and the babies will be healthy enough to be sold. They take care of the grass and the other parts of the land to ensure the cows are fed during the spring, summer and fall. They make sure that there is enough hay to feed them during the winter. As parents we have the ability to help our children adapt. To set them up for success in life as humans. We teach our children how to cook, clean, read, and write. The ability to care for themselves spans across generations. They will teach their own children these abilities to adapt and survive in the world around them. We pass this on to them through extra-genetic inheritance. We have a new emergence of new species through speciation. Differences can be so vast that it becomes a totally different species. Such as the dog and the wolf. Both have canine but the wolf is considered a different species. Evolution takes place as we experience different things in our culture. We have to adapt as our culture changes. The constructivist approach shows that our biology is a process of construction (Welsch 239). Our bodies work in combination with our genes to affect how genes can be expressed or epigenetic system of inheritance ( Welsch 240). When our genes are altered we can pass those down to our children affecting how their bodies work and how they behave. The way we raise our children affects how they will behave as adults. If we are nurturing, loving and kind to our children almost all of the time these will be the traits they possess unless they have something else going on biologically. If we behave negative with our children and this is all they see they will in turn possess those traits. This is the behavioral system of inheritance. We also store symbols and communicate them with others around us, showing the world our understanding through them. The symbols we use come from the symbolic system of inheritance. Through manipulating the world around us and changing the world around us it is important to our biocultural evolution. Change is an important part of who we are. Just as when we move into a new home, a new town, new school, and even a new job we change and construct the environment to fit our needs. We do certain things so we can fit in and feel comfortable. It allows us to thrive. We even try to change the land we live on. Another aspect of biocultural evolution is the evolution of our behaviors. Sociobiology explains our behaviors as related to our biological component (Welsch 245). Our behavior can also be influenced by the earth and social things going on around us. This comes from the human behavioral ecology (HBE) (Welsch 246). We adapt our behavior to our society so that we can fit and continue to evolve. Our behaviors are directly connected to our biological self. This comes from biological determinism (Welsch 247). Some of them come forward or (emergence) based on who we see and interact with in our daily lives. We adapt and change through our diet, moving to different places, and sometimes we even change our bodies through modification to make ourselves fit in. Just like runway models who extreme diet and workout to be tiny enough to be considered for the runway. This shapes our cultures around the world and how we all view each other. Everyone in this world is so unique. No two people even family members will be completely identical. Our bodies adapt and varied through the generations to be continued successfully. We all try to fit in with our behaviors so that our true biological self can come forward. We need to be conscious in the things we teach our children because they will be the next generation and bring forth a new culture. Works CitedWelsch, Robert Louis, et al. Anthropology: Asking Questions about Human Origins, Diversity, and Culture. Oxford University Press, 2017.

Toricelli Lautenberg Debate essays

Toricelli Lautenberg Debate essays Should Laudenburg have been allowed to replace Torricelli in the general election for U.S. Senator? When you think about a general election you think about all the planning, and the continuous work that goes into it. When someone decides to run for office they have to do research on their opponents, and see what their views are on different political situations, and even take a look into their background. Throughout an election the republicans and the democrats and any other party is continuously gaining information good and bad to use against their opponent. In the 2002 election for senate, the two parties that were being represented are the democrats and the republicans. Torricelli was running for the Democratic Party and Douglas Forrester was running for the Republican Party. Then after a poll showed that Torricelli was losing, and in fear of the loss of a democratic seat, he withdrew from the election, and was replaced by former senator Frank Lautenberg. However the Republican Party thought that is was unfair, illegal, and unconstitutional to replace a candidate at the last minute. Republicans called the switch, a political ploy intended to dump a candidate who seemed sure to lose in favor of potential winner. The excuse that was used on behalf of the Democratic Party is that challenger Forrester had made Torricellis ethics problems the focus of his campaign. The Supreme Court, when asked to make a decision on the issue, allowed the Democratic Party to change the ballots and allow Lautenberg to run. This caused a lot of turmoil, because, 1,700 absentee and overseas military ballots have already been printed. Therefore, in addition to granting the democrats the right for the switch it also made them pay $800,000 for the reprinting of the ballots. Numerous individuals feel that since the state court has a majority of democrats, they over ruled the law and allowed for the swit...

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